Glossary of Transliteration and Transcription Terms

Glossary of Terms

• A
• C
• D
• G
• I
• L
• P
• R
• S
• T
• U
• V

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A

Alphabet (set of letters, letter system)

An alphabet is an ordered system of letters or other written symbols used for writing a language.

Each character of an alphabet usually corresponds to a particular sound or group of sounds. An alphabet forms the basis of the writing system of many languages around the world.

Different alphabets may vary in the number of letters, the order of characters, spelling rules, and methods of representing sounds.

Some alphabets use additional symbols such as diacritical marks, special letters, and letter combinations.

C

Consonant letter (consonant character, consonant symbol)

A consonant letter is a letter of the alphabet that represents a consonant sound.

Consonant letters are used to represent sounds that are produced with partial or complete obstruction of the airflow in the vocal tract.

The number of consonant letters and the rules governing their use vary across languages.

In some languages, the same consonant letter may represent different sounds depending on its position in a word or its combination with other letters.

Many languages distinguish between voiced and voiceless consonants, hard and soft consonants, as well as consonants represented by letter combinations.
Example: In Russian: б, в, г, д, ж, з, к, л, м, н, and others. In English: b, c, d, f, g, h, and others. In German: b, d, f, g, h, j, k, and others.

Cyrillic (Cyrillic writing system, Cyrillic alphabet, Slavic )

Cyrillic is a writing system used for many Slavic and some non-Slavic languages. The Cyrillic is based on a special alphabet created to represent the sounds of Slavic speech.

Cyrillic is used in various countries of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, as well as in several countries of Asia.

The alphabets of Russian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Belarusian, Macedonian, and other languages are based on Cyrillic.

Different Cyrillic alphabets may vary in their set of letters and writing rules.

Some languages use both Cyrillic and Latin s simultaneously depending on the country, region, or official standards. See also Latin

D

Diacritics (Diacritical marks, accent marks, diacritical signs)

Diacritics are additional marks placed above, below, or within letters that modify their pronunciation, meaning, or function.

Diacritics are used to indicate sound features, distinguish words, or clarify the reading of a text. They may change the pronunciation of a letter, indicate stress, or mark vowel length or shortness.

Different languages use different diacritics and different rules for their application.

Some diacritics are an essential part of the alphabet, while in other cases they are used only when necessary.
Example: "é" in French; "ñ" in Spanish; "ä", "ö", "ü" in German; "č", "š", "ž" in Slavic languages; "å" in Scandinavian languages.

DIN 1460 (DIN transliteration standard, German transliteration standard)

Term: DIN 1460
DIN 1460 is a German national standard for the transliteration of Slavic Cyrillic alphabets into the Latin developed by the German Institute for Standardization (DIN).

The standard establishes rules for representing Cyrillic letters with the Latin alphabet in order to ensure uniform and accurate text representation.

DIN 1460 is used primarily in scientific, library, and documentation contexts. It is focused on accurate text representation, unambiguous correspondences, the possibility of reconstructing the original spelling, and consistency in international data exchange.

Like ISO 9, the standard uses diacritical marks to distinguish Cyrillic letters.
Example: Ж → Ž, Ч → Č, Ш → Š, Щ → ŠČ, Ю → Ju

Diphthong (complex vowel, gliding vowel, compound vowel)

A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds pronounced within a single syllable.

When a diphthong is pronounced, the articulation moves smoothly from one vowel sound to another without dividing them into two separate syllables.

Diphthongs are part of the sound system of many languages. In some languages, they play an important role in distinguishing word meanings.

A diphthong may be represented by two letters, a combination of letters, or special phonetic symbols. The rules for the pronunciation and spelling of diphthongs differ across languages.

In English, diphthongs are especially common and form an important part of standard pronunciation.

German also contains diphthongs, for example: "ei", "au", "eu". See also Vowel letter
Example: English: "house" [aʊ] Deutsch: "mein" [aɪ] Deutsch: "heute" [ɔʏ]

Duden (German orthographic dictionary, Duden dictionary, German spelling reference)

Duden is an authoritative German orthographic dictionary and reference system that defines the norms of spelling in the German language.

The dictionary is used as one of the main normative sources for orthography, punctuation, grammar, and word usage in Germany.

Duden was first published in the 19th century by the German philologist Konrad Duden. Over time, the name Duden came to refer not only to a specific dictionary, but also to the entire system of German orthographic reference works.

After the German spelling reform, Duden continued to be used as one of the principal practical references for modern German orthography.

In German, the word Duden is often used generically to refer to an authoritative spelling dictionary.

Although Duden is considered the most authoritative orthographic reference in Germany, the official rules of German spelling are established by the Council for German Orthography (Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung).

G

GOST 7.79-2000 (GOST transliteration standard, Russian transliteration standard)

GOST 7.79-2000 is a Russian state standard that establishes rules for the transliteration of Cyrillic s into the Latin alphabet.
The standard defines how Cyrillic letters should be represented in Latin in order to ensure uniform and unambiguous text representation.
GOST 7.79-2000 is based on the international standard ISO 9 and is primarily intended for accurate and systematic transliteration.
The standard is used in bibliographic systems, scientific publications, catalogs, documentation, information systems, and international data exchange.
GOST includes several transliteration systems, including:
- a system using diacritical marks (System A);
- simplified variants without special characters (System B). See also ISO 9

Grapheme

A grapheme is the smallest unit of writing used to distinguish meaning in a written language.

A grapheme may consist of a single letter, a combination of letters, a diacritic mark, or another written symbol. The main function of a grapheme is to represent distinctions between words and grammatical forms in writing.
A grapheme belongs to the writing system in the same way that a phoneme belongs to the sound system of a language.
The same grapheme may represent different sounds depending on the language or its position within a word. In some languages, a grapheme consists of several letters. For example: “sh” in English, “sch” in German. See also Phoneme
Example: The letter “а” is a grapheme of the Russian alphabet. The German letter “ä” is considered a separate grapheme.

I

ICAO (ICAO transliteration standard, passport transliteration, machine-readable passport transliteration)

ICAO is an international standard for rendering personal names in the Latin alphabet for machine-readable documents such as passports, visas, and identity documents.
The standard was developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
The ICAO standard is used to ensure uniform spelling of personal data in international documents and automated control systems.
The main purpose of the system is to ensure document compatibility during international travel and automatic data reading.
Unlike scientific transliteration systems, the ICAO system is focused on technical compatibility, the use of basic Latin characters only, the absence of diacritical marks, and ease of machine recognition.
As a result, ICAO spelling does not always accurately reflect the pronunciation or original spelling of a name.
The ICAO standard is used in passports, visas, airline tickets, migration systems, and international databases.
Example: Юлия → IULIIAАлексей → ALEKSEIДмитрий → DMITRIIFrançois → FRANCOIS

Iotated vowels (iotated letters, yodized vowels)

Iotated vowels are Cyrillic letters that represent a combination of the sound [j] (the "y" sound) followed by a vowel sound. In Russian, the iotated vowels are: я, ю, е, ё.
At the beginning of a word, after a vowel, or after separation signs, these letters usually represent two sounds: я → [ja], ю → [ju], е → [je], ё → [jo].
After consonants, iotated vowels often indicate the palatalization (softening) of the preceding consonant. See also Vowel letter
Example: In transliteration, iotated vowels may be represented differently depending on the standard: я → ya / ja / â, ю → yu / ju / û, е → e / je, ё → yo / jo / ë

ISO 9 (ISO transliteration standard, ISO 9 transliteration system)

ISO 9 is an international standard for the transliteration of Cyrillic s into the Latin alphabet developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

The standard is based on the principle of "one character — one letter", according to which each Cyrillic character corresponds to exactly one Latin character or a Latin character with a diacritical mark.

The main purpose of ISO 9 is to provide accurate, unambiguous, and reversible transliteration. The standard is not designed for readability or pronunciation rendering, but primarily for the precise reconstruction of the original text.

ISO 9 is widely used in library systems, scientific publications, catalogs, international data exchange, linguistics, archival systems, and information systems.

To achieve unambiguous representation, the standard actively uses diacritical marks. See also GOST 7.79-2000
Example: Ж → Ž Ч → Č Ю → Û Я → Â Щ → Ŝ

L

Latin (Latin , Latin alphabet, Roman , Roman alphabet, Latin writing system)

The Latin is a writing system based on the Latin alphabet and used for writing many languages around the world.

The Latin originates from ancient Roman writing and today is the most widely used writing system in the world.

The Latin is used in most European languages as well as in many languages of the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

The alphabets of English, German, French, Spanish, Polish, Turkish, and many other languages are based on the Latin .

Different languages use the Latin in different ways: with additional letters, with diacritical marks, and with specific pronunciation and spelling rules.

Modern Latin exists in many national variants. Even when the same letters are used, pronunciation and reading rules may differ greatly from one language to another.

Some languages use both the Latin and other writing systems simultaneously.

The Latin is widely used:

* in international communication;
* on the internet;
* in scientific publications;
* in transliteration systems;
* in international documents;
* in information technology. See also Cyrillic
Example: The English language uses the Latin ; the German alphabet is based on the Latin ; the word "Berlin" is written in the Latin .

P

Phoneme

A phoneme is the smallest sound unit of a language that serves to distinguish the meanings of words and grammatical forms.

A phoneme usually has no meaning by itself, but replacing one phoneme with another can change the meaning of a word.

Phonemes exist as abstract sound units of a language.

In actual speech, the same phoneme may be pronounced slightly differently depending on its position in a word, the speed of speech, or pronunciation features.

The number of phonemes and the ways they are distinguished vary from one language to another.

Phonemes are studied in phonology, the branch of linguistics that examines the sound system of a language. See also Grapheme
Example: "dom" — "tom" The difference between the phonemes /d/ and /t/ changes the meaning of the word.

Practical tranion

Practical tranion is the rendering of foreign words using the writing system of a particular language, taking into account pronunciation, language conventions, and established traditions of representation.

The main purpose of practical tranion is to make a foreign word understandable and easy to read for speakers of a specific language.

Practical tranion does not aim to reproduce pronunciation with absolute accuracy.

When rendering words, factors such as pronunciation, language rules and traditions, readability, and established forms of personal and geographical names are taken into consideration.

As a result, the same foreign sound may be represented differently in different languages.

Practical tranion is widely used in the media, in translations, in encyclopedias and dictionaries, in geographical names, as well as in the rendering of personal names and surnames. See also Tranion

R

Reversibility (reversibility of transliteration, reversible conversion)

Reversibility is a property of a transliteration system in which the original text can be reconstructed accurately and without ambiguity from its representation in another .

In reversible transliteration, each symbol or combination of symbols corresponds to only one specific element of the original writing system.

Reversibility is especially important in systems where text must be transmitted accurately without loss of information.

Such systems are used in international standards, library catalogs, databases, archival systems, scientific publications, and the exchange of official information.

Not all transliteration systems are fully reversible. If different letters are represented in the same way, it may be impossible to reconstruct the original spelling.

Practical tranion is usually not fully reversible because it is primarily based on pronunciation.

S

Syllable

A syllable is the smallest pronounceable unit of speech consisting of a vowel sound alone or a combination of a vowel with consonants.

A syllable forms a separate sound element within a word and is pronounced as a single unit. The number of syllables in a word is usually determined by the number of vowel sounds.

A syllable may consist of only a vowel sound, a consonant and a vowel, or several consonants and one vowel.
Example: "мама" — two syllables, "Berlin" — two syllables

T

Toponym (geographical name, place name, geographic name)

A toponym is a proper name of any geographical object.

Toponyms include the names of countries, cities, villages, rivers, lakes, seas, mountains, streets, and other geographical objects. Toponyms are used to designate and identify geographical places and objects.

When translating, transcribing, or transliterating toponyms, different spelling variants often appear in different languages. Some toponyms have traditional forms that differ from the original spelling.
Example: The same geographical object may have different name forms in different languages, for example: Köln → Cologne, Wien → Vienna, Firenze → Florence, Москва → Moscow / Moskau.

Tranion

Tranion is the representation of the sound form of a word using the letters or symbols of another language or writing system. In tranion, the primary goal is to convey pronunciation rather than the exact spelling of a word.
The main purpose of tranion is to show how a word sounds. Unlike transliteration, tranion is based on pronunciation.
As a result, the same letter may be represented differently depending on how it is pronounced, and some letters of the original text may have no direct equivalent at all.

Tranion is often used: for rendering personal names and surnames, in dictionaries, in foreign language learning, in linguistics, in the media and international communication.

In English, the term "tranion" may refer either to a phonetic representation of pronunciation or to a written record of spoken language, depending on the context.

In German, "Transkription" can also be used in a broader sense, including scientific phonetic notation. See also Practical tranion, Transliteration

Transliteration (letter-by-letter conversion)

Transliteration is the letter-by-letter rendering of a text written in one writing system by means of another writing system.
In transliteration, each letter or character usually corresponds to a specific letter or combination of letters in another alphabet.
The main purpose of transliteration is to preserve the spelling of a word so that it can be reconstructed in its original .
Transliteration does not convey the exact pronunciation of a word. It conveys the written form rather than the sound. See also Tranion, Transliteration table
Example: The Russian name “Юрий” may be transliterated as Yurii or Yury, depending on the standard used.

Transliteration table (transliteration chart, transliteration mapping table)

A transliteration table is a systematic list of correspondences between the characters of one alphabet and the characters of another alphabet.

Such a table defines how letters, symbols, or combinations of symbols from one writing system should be represented using another writing system. See also Transliteration

U

Umlauts (umlauted letters, letters with umlauts, umlaut vowels, diacritical vowels)

Umlauts are letters marked with two dots above a vowel, used primarily in the German language.
In German, the umlauts are: ä, ö, ü.

An umlaut changes the pronunciation of the original vowel letter. In German, umlauts are considered independent letters and play an important role in distinguishing word meanings.

In some cases, the absence of an umlaut can completely change the meaning of a word.

In transliteration systems and where special characters are unavailable, umlauts are often represented as: ä → ae, ö → oe, ü → ue.
In German, Umlaut historically refers to a vowel change, while Umlaute refers to the corresponding letters. See also Vowel letter
Example: Words with umlauts: schön, Müller, Österreich, für, lösen.

V

Vowel letter (vowel character, vowel symbol)

A vowel letter is a letter of the alphabet that represents a vowel sound.

Vowel letters are used to represent sounds that are produced without significant obstruction of the airflow through the vocal tract.

The number of vowel letters and the rules governing their use vary across languages.

In some languages, a single vowel letter may represent different sounds depending on its position in a word or its combination with other letters.

Many languages distinguish between long and short vowels, stressed and unstressed vowels, as well as vowels with diacritical marks. See also Diphthong, Iotated vowels, Umlauts, Consonant letter
Example: In Russian: а, е, ё, и, о, у, ы, э, ю, я. In English: a, e, i, o, u. In German: a, e, i, o, u, ä, ö, ü, y.

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